What do you mean by state succession? Write about rights and duties arising out of state succession

What is state succession-

Succession is merger or absorption of one state by another state or states. The state succession is distinguished from gout succession. When succession take place than a state loses fully or a part of it’s territory; while in government has been changed.

               A succession of international person (generally states) occurs when one or more international person take place of another international person take place of another international person fully or partly and all the right and liabilities also transfer during the succession.

               Art 2 (1) (b) of the Vienna convention on succession of states in respect of treaties in 1978 defines the term ‘state succession” as,” the replacement of one state by another in the responsibility of the international relation of territory”.

                The rule of state succession was incorporated from the Roman law by Grotious. In Roman law when a person dies his rights and duties are succeeded by his successors. This principle was applied by Grotious in the International law as well. Later on there were certain international treaties through which the rules of state succession were developed. The law of state succession is still developing.

Right and duties arising out state succession

1. Political Right and duties: No succession take place in respect of political duties and rights. Hence the succeeding state is not bound by the political treaties of the former state. State is not bound by the treaties of place or neutrality entered by the extinct state.
2. Local right and duties: When any succession take place local right and duties. i.e. right relating to land, rivers, roads, railways etc. Also succeed from extinct (predecessor) state to succeeding state.                                                                                                           

                     Permanent court of International Justice” held that private rights do not end by the changes of sovereignty.

3. Fiscal property debts: when one or more international person (state) take place of another person is called state succession; in state succession fiscal property debts also transferred from extinct state to successor state.

4. Contracts: Predecessor state entered into contract, now whether the successor state is bound by that or not.

                   West Rand century Gold Mining Co.Ltd

                                VS/

                           King

It was held that succeeding state was entitled to decide whether it will accept the financial obligation of former state or not if it won’t accept then it won’t be liable.

5. Concessionary Contracts : If the existing state has granted certain concession like the right to operate oil mines; laying of railways etc. then such contract will be binding on succeeding state, because they are local nature.

                     But some of the writers/ Jurists say that the concessionary contracts are not binding on succeeding state.

6. Lows s: Succeeding state will have to decide whether the law have to decide whether the will be continue or not.

7. Unliquidated damages for tort: Compensation (damages) for unliquidated damages won’t exist in state succession.

8. Nationality: National of new state is gained and nationality of the predecessor state is lost.

9. Succession to property in foreign state: Successor state will not only receive the property situated with in the territory but also receive the property exist in outside the territory which was belonging to predecessor state.

10.Succession of state Archives: If no agreement was concluded in the case of cession the successor state; the successor state should receive the part of the archives necessary for an efficient administration of the acquired territory and all other document.

11. Treaty relations: Art 15 of Vienna convention” treaties of the predecessor state are to be territory.

Discuss the relationship between Municipal law and International Law

The question of the relation between international law and the state law not only for theoretical importance but also of immense practical importance.-

Firstly,  the law treaties, which affect the state law cannot be clearly understood unless the relation between the two legal systems is clearly appreciated.

Secondly, it is very often the municipal court has to decide some problem/cases, where it has to go give effect to the international law. Thus the relationship between international law and state law is important.

Thirdly, international court and tribunals may have to determine the effect of a rule of municipal law in the international sphere. Here the relationship is again very important.

Relationship between International and Municipal law:

Theories-There are mainly two theories as to the relation between international law and state law. They are- (1) Monism,   (2) Dualism

(1)   Monism:- Monistic theory was pronounced in 18^th century by German scholars Moser and Martens.

              According to this theory; international law and state law are the components 

 of one system of law in general. This theory regards that law is single unit consisting of rules are binding on states or on individuals or on entities other then state. According to this theory, both state law and international ultimately regulate the conduct of individuals. The only difference is that; in the case of international law; as it is applicable to the international law; as it is applicable to the international sphere, consequences of such conduct are attributed to the state.

(2)   Dualism theory:- According the followers of this theory Municipal law and international law are two separate distinct and self. Contained legal orders; independent from each other. According to the following of this theory international law is distinct from municipal law, on the following grounds-

(a)    Sources: The sources of both the system are quite different. Municipal law is the creature of legislature; while the treaties between the states are the sources of international law.

(b)   Regarding subject: Dualists are of the view that the subjects of international law and Municipal law are different from each other. While municipal law regulates the relations between individuals; and state and individual but the international law primarily regulate the relationship between states.

(c)    Regarding substance of law: Substance of the laws of two system are also different. While municipal law is a law of a sovereign over individuals, International law is a law not above but between sovereign states.

(d)   Regarding principles: The municipal law are followed because they are creation of legislature and there is sanction behind it; but international law bound by morality.

(e)    Regarding Dynamism of the subject-Matter: Subject matter of the two system are also different. While the subject matter of international law has always remained dynamic; subject- matter of the municipal law is limited.

(f)    Regarding Judiciary: The state Judiciary following the municipal law but international law is followed by the International law is followed by the International court of Justice or by other settlement authority.

Sources of public international law.

There are various sources of international law as follows-

• Main sources

1.      Treaties

2.      Custom

3.      Judicial decision

4.      General principle of law recognized by civilized states

5.      Writings of jurists

6.      Equity

7.      Resolutions of the General Assembly

• Some other sources

1. International comity
2. State paper
3. State paper for their officers
4. Reason
5. Equity and Justice

       

1. Treaties:  At present international treaties are the most important source of international

    Article 38(1)(a)  of the statute of the international Court of Justice lays  down that the

     Court while deciding any dispute shall apply international conventions which are expressly recognized by the contesting states. Treaties therefore have acquired a dominant importance in international law.

        Treaties are agreements between two or more states by which they create or intend to create a relationship between themselves.

2. Custom: Custom is the original and the oldest source of international law and at the time it was the most important among the other sources. Custom is the foundation stone of the modern international law. It was so because a large part of international law consists of customary rules.

  International custom evolve through the practiced and usages of nations and their recognition by the community of nations. Customary rules are referred to those rules which are practiced by most of the states.

3. Judicial Decisions: Judicial decision as the source of international law can be discuss in following points:

  a. International Court of Justice: In modern period international court of justice is the main International Judicial Tribunal. However, however it should be noted that the decision of International Court of Justice does not create a binding general rule of International Law.

  b. Awards of International Tribunal: Awards of international tribunal such as the ‘Permanent Court of Justice’, ‘American Mixed Claim Tribunal etc.

  c. State Judicial Decision: the state/domestic judicial decision helps in development of international law in some context.

  d. Juristic Work: although the judicial work can’t be treated as an independent source of international law; yet the view of the jurists may help in the development of law.

4. General principle of law recognized by the civilized nations: Article 38(1)(C) of the Statute of International Court of Justice recognized the General principle of law recognized by the civilized state as the third source of international law. In the modern period it has become an important source.

5. Writing of Jurists: Text books or writing of the jurists are one of the important sources of international law. The writings of – Ayala, Grotious, Puffendorf, Bynkershock, Vattel etc has make undoubted contribution in the development of international law

6. Equity: The term equity as a source of international law is used in the sense of consideration of fairness, reasonableness and policy often necessary for the sensible application of more settled rule of law. It is to be noted that equity has not been mentioned by the Statute of International Court of Justice as the source of international law. However, it is of great importance in the field where rules are not readily available. The Court in such cases can not refrain itself from rendering justice on the ground that law is silent.

7. Resolutions of the General Assembly: Resolutions of the General Assembly is also one of the sources of international law. Though Resolutions of the General Assembly of U.N do not possess legal character and as such are not binding on the States.

What is public International Law ? Discuss the Historical development and origin of international Law.

Ans: Meaning of the International Low:

The expression “International Law” and Law of the Nation are similar and equivalent. The term “International Law” was introduced by Bentham in the year-1789. Prior to it ‘International Law’ was known as “Law of the Nation.”

               In simple word “International Law” means the set of rules generally accepted by the nation, through any treaty or otherwise to regulate there relationship.

   International Law consists of-

(a)   Public International Law

(b)   Private International Law

(c)    Supranational Law

According to Bentham , “International Law is the Law of Nations.”

 According to I.L Oppenheim, “law of nation or international law is the name for the body of customary and conventional rules which are considered legally binding by civilised state in their intercourse with each other.”

Historical and Development of International Law:

Although the term ‘International Law’ is new and firstly used by Bentham in 1789 but the concept of “Law of the Nation” i.e- International arise in ancient Jews; Greck; Roman period.

  The History and development of International Law can be classified into

 different period-
    1. Development during Ancient period.
    2. Development in 16^th century.

3. Development in 17^th and 18^th century.

4. Development in 19^th and 20^th century.

1.     Ancient period-

(a)    Jews- A study of ancient history reveals that the Jews had relations with other community. Their relations with other communities were regarded by certain rules.

(b)    Greeks- Greeks lived in small city state. The mutual relation of those states were regulated and governed by some definite rules and principles. They had formulated definite laws of war, and peach.

(c)    Romans- In early period Rome was a small city. State and had relations with other state. Their relationship was based on international law.

 (d)Hindus-we can not deny the contribution of Hindu Law in the development of International Law. There are some holy books i.e Ramayana; Mohabharat, Vedas;  Purans ; Gita, Kautilya’s Arthashastra etc.

Which deals with international relationship; rule of war, peach and economic relationship etc with other countries.

                     The Slake of vadas always says about the non violence and peach.

(e)Muslim- The Muslim Law (Quran) says about the peach and rule relating to war. Muslim Law also says about the protection of women and children during war.

 

  2. Development in 16^th century-

Grotious- According to Grotious the natural Law is the Law of reasoning. But he dose not deny the importance of customary Law. He divided Law in to two kinds Jus Gentium (customary Law) and Jus Nature (Natural Law) According to him the prisoners of war should be maintained adequately by the captor. He also point out that prisoners of war entitled to their religious right as well. The introduced the concept of “just war” and “unjust war.

3.    Development in 17^th and 18^th centuries:

In 17^th and 18^th centuries three school relating to International law comes into existence.-

               (a) Naturalist

               (b) Positivist

               (c) Grotians

(a) Naturalist: According to the followers/supporters of Naturalist theory the international law is the law of nature or law of reasoning. According to them Natural law is the source of International law. They deny the positivist theory. Supporter of this theory

 are-   Puffendorf

          Thomasious

(b) Positivist: According to the supporter of positivist theory the rule of International law is derived/rooted from custom and treaty but not from natural law.

(c) Grotians: The followers of Grotious is known as the Grotious. According to them the International law comes from both positive and Natural law.

  4.      Development in 19^th and 20^th century:

According to the Jurist and writers of 19^th and 20^th century. International law is the out come of treaty and customs. However according to them natural law is important where there is no statutory law is exists.

       In 19^th and 20^th centuries various treaty has been signed relating to International law. Which takes an important place in development of International law.

(a)    Congress of Vienna-1815: The Congress of Vienna was Landmark event for the development of International law. In this conference European countries accepted some rules relating to International law.

(b)   Declaration of Paris-1856: In this declaration, attack on undefended people during naval war was prohibited.

(c)    Geneva Convention -1864: In Geneva convention rules relating to the wended and sick members of the armed force during war is laid down.

(d)   Hague conference of 1899 and 1907: It is one of the landmark conference in the history of international law. In this conference it was accepted that International dispute will be settled in a peaceful manner.

(e)    The league of Nations: After the first world war, the nations of the world felt the need of an International organization which might be able not only to regulate amicable the mutual relations among the nations but could also prevent future wars.

(f)    Treaty of Locarno of 1925: In treaty of Locarno the powerful nation like- France, Britain, Germany and Italy etc enters into some agreement relating to their boundary dispute.

(g)   Kellog- Briand or Paris pact of 1928: ‘Paris pact’ also provide the peaceful method of settlement of International Dispute.

(h)   Geneva Convention-1929: This convention was signed by 47 countries of the world and many rules relating to the treatment of prisoners of wars were laid down in this convention.

(i)     Second World War: During the Second World War a huge number of people and Army Man die, and as the result various agreement has been signed by all the countries of the world to prevent future war.

(j)     U.N: As the result of Second World War the U.N comes into existence in 1945. The main aim and object of U.N is to maintain the peace and security in the world and to protect the war. After the constitution of U.N various conventions has been organised by the U.N for the protection of human life and to prevent the future wars.       

                               

DOUBLE INSURANCE

When same risk and same subject matter is insured with more then one insurance policies, is called double insurance. In other words there can be one and single insurance of a risk or more then one insurance for the same risk by the same insurer or different insurance. The later is known as “double insurance” or “multiple insurance”.

             If the sum insured exceeds the original value of the subject matter that is called over-insurance. The over-insurance is lawful if there is no express condition is mentioned expressly in the insurance contract.

   EX-

             “A” the owner of a house insured his house against fire for RS-3 lac with ‘X’ and RS-1 lac with ‘Y’ this is called double insurance.

   Features of Double Insurance-

1.      More then one policies are obtained for the same.

2.      All the policies related to the same risk.

3.      The insured has equal insurable interest in the subject matter.

4.      The insured is same.

Recovery of loss-

           The insured can enter into contract of insurance with any number of insurance. When the loss occurs, the insured can claim only the loss amount. The insured cannot claim the sum more then the actual loss.

Discuss the provision for appoinment ,duties and powers of Inspector under the Assam Shops and Establishments Act 1971.

The Assam Shops and Establishment Act 1971 is founded to deal with appointment of Inspector, power and function/duties of Inspectors-

Appointment of Inspectors

The appropriate Government shall appoint Inspector for the purpose of this Act

        The appropriate Government shall appoint a competent person to act as the Chief Inspector for the purpose of this Act.

 

Power and Function/Duties of Inspector 

Every Inspector appointed U/S-25 shall have the same  power of Civil Court under the Code of Civil Procedure 1908.

     Acc to Sec 26 an inspector appointed under this Act shall have the following powers-

1. To enter at all reasonable time in any place where is a establishment or a place which the inspector has reason to believe is an establishment.
2. An Inspector has power to make inspection of the premises and prescribed, registers, record and notices.

           The Inspector has also the power to take evidence of any person.

3. The Inspector may require the photograph to be taken of any employee or the premises of any establishment.
4. The Inspector has the power to call for any information from any establishment or employer.
5. The Inspector has power to appoint out any defects or irregularities founded in the course of his inspection in an establishment.
6. he has the power to summoning and enforcement of the attendance of witness.
7. discovery and production of documents.
8. Administered on oath.
9. The Inspector may exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the purpose of the Act.
10. The Chief Inspector shall have the same power and duties as that of the Inspector.
11. The Chief Inspector will direct the working of other Inspectors.

DUTIES OF INSPECTORS : The main function or duties of inspectors appointed under this Act is to examine the following:

1. Daily hours of work.
2. weekly hours of work
3. over time wages
4. interval of rest
5. holidays
6. holidays for religious purpose
7. wages for annual leave
8. prohibition of annual leave
9. prohibition of employment of child
10. prohibition of employment of women and person under 17 years of age at hight
11. cleanliness in the working place
12. precaution against fire.

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